Socioeconomic differences in the utilization of diagnostic imaging and non-pharmaceutical conservative therapies for spinal diseases.

BACKGROUND: A different utilization of health care services due to socioeconomic status on the same health plan contradicts the principle of equal treatment. We investigated the presence and magnitude of socioeconomic differences in utilization of diagnostic imaging and non-pharmaceutical conservative therapies for patients with spinal diseases. METHODS: The cohort study based on routine healthcare data from Germany with 11.7 million patient-years between 2012 and 2016 for patients with physician-confirmed spinal diseases (ICD-10: M40-M54), occupation and age 20 to 64 years. A Poisson model estimated the effects of the socioeconomic status (school education, professional education and occupational position) for the risk ratio of receiving diagnostic imaging (radiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging) and non-pharmaceutical conservative therapies (physical therapy including exercise therapy, manual therapy and massage, spinal manipulative therapy, acupuncture). RESULTS: Patients received diagnostic imaging in 26%, physical therapy in 32%, spinal manipulative therapy in 25%, and acupuncture in 4% of all patient-years. Similar to previous survey-based studies higher rates of utilization were associated with higher socioeconomic status. These differences were most pronounced for manual therapy, exercise therapy, and magnetic resonance imaging. CONCLUSIONS: The observed differences in health care utilization were highly related to socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic differences were higher for more expensive health services. Further research is necessary to identify barriers to equitable access to health services and to take appropriate action to decrease existing social disparities.

The Effect of Reduced Access to Chiropractic Care on Medical Service Use for Spine Conditions Among Older Adults.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which access to chiropractic care affects medical service use among older adults with spine conditions. METHODS: We used Medicare claims data to identify a cohort of 39,278 older adult chiropractic care users who relocated during 2010-2014 and thus experienced a change in geographic access to chiropractic care. National Plan and Provider Enumeration System data were used to determine chiropractor per population ratios across the United States. A reduction in access to chiropractic care was defined as decreasing 1 quintile or more in chiropractor per population ratio after relocation. Using a difference-in-difference analysis (before versus after relocation), we compared the use of medical services among those who experienced a reduction in access to chiropractic care versus those who did not. RESULTS: Among those who experienced a reduction in access to chiropractic care (versus those who did not), we observed an increase in the rate of visits to primary care physicians for spine conditions (an annual increase of 32.3 visits, 95% CI: 1.4-63.1 per 1,000) and rate of spine surgeries (an annual increase of 5.5 surgeries, 95% CI: 1.3-9.8 per 1,000). Considering the mean cost of a visit to a primary care physician and spine surgery, a reduction in access to chiropractic care was associated with an additional cost of $114,967 per 1,000 beneficiaries on medical services ($391 million nationally). CONCLUSIONS: Among older adults, reduced access to chiropractic care is associated with an increase in the use of some medical services for spine conditions.

Deep Spinal Infection after Outpatient Epidural Injections for Pain: A Retrospective Sample Cohort Study Using a Claims Database in South Korea.

BACKGROUND: Deep spinal infection is a devastating complication after epidural injection. This study aimed to investigate the incidence of deep spinal infection primarily after outpatient single-shot epidural injection for pain. Secondarily, this study assessed the national trends of the procedure and risk factors for said infection. METHODS: Using South Korea's National Health Insurance Service sample cohort database, the 10-yr national trend of single-shot epidural injections for pain and the incidence rate of deep spinal infection after the procedure with its risk factors were determined. New-onset deep spinal infections were defined as those occurring within 90 days of the most recent outpatient single-shot epidural injection for pain, needing hospitalization for at least 1 night, and receiving at least a 4-week course of antibiotics. RESULTS: The number of outpatient single-shot epidural injections per 1,000 persons in pain practice doubled from 40.8 in 2006 to 84.4 in 2015 in South Korea. Among the 501,509 injections performed between 2007 and 2015, 52 cases of deep spinal infections were detected within 90 days postprocedurally (0.01% per injection). In multivariable analysis, age of 65 yr or more (odds ratio, 2.91; 95% CI, 1.62 to 5.5; P = 0.001), living in a rural area (odds ratio, 2.85; 95% CI, 1.57 to 5.0; P < 0.001), complicated diabetes (odds ratio, 3.18; 95% CI, 1.30 to 6.7; P = 0.005), multiple epidural injections (three times or more) within the previous 90 days (odds ratio, 2.34; 95% CI, 1.22 to 4.2; P = 0.007), and recent use of immunosuppressants (odds ratio, 2.90; 95% CI, 1.00 to 6.7; P = 0.025) were significant risk factors of the infection postprocedurally. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of deep spinal infection after outpatient single-shot epidural injections for pain is very rare within 90 days of the procedure (0.01%). The data identify high-risk patients and procedure characteristics that may inform healthcare provider decision-making.

Providing Epidemiological Data in Lumbar Spine Imaging Reports Did Not Affect Subsequent Utilization of Spine Procedures: Secondary Outcomes from a Stepped-Wedge Randomized Controlled Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of inserting epidemiological information into lumbar spine imaging reports on subsequent nonsurgical and surgical procedures involving the thoracolumbosacral spine and sacroiliac joints. DESIGN: Analysis of secondary outcomes from the Lumbar Imaging with Reporting of Epidemiology (LIRE) pragmatic stepped-wedge randomized trial. SETTING: Primary care clinics within four integrated health care systems in the United States. SUBJECTS: 238,886 patients ≥18 years of age who received lumbar diagnostic imaging between 2013 and 2016. METHODS: Clinics were randomized to receive text containing age- and modality-specific epidemiological benchmarks indicating the prevalence of common spine imaging findings in people without low back pain, inserted into lumbar spine imaging reports (the "LIRE intervention"). The study outcomes were receiving 1) any nonsurgical lumbosacral or sacroiliac spine procedure (lumbosacral epidural steroid injection, facet joint injection, or facet joint radiofrequency ablation; or sacroiliac joint injection) or 2) any surgical procedure involving the lumbar, sacral, or thoracic spine (decompression surgery or spinal fusion or other spine surgery). RESULTS: The LIRE intervention was not significantly associated with subsequent utilization of nonsurgical lumbosacral or sacroiliac spine procedures (odds ratio [OR] = 1.01, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.93-1.09; P = 0.79) or any surgical procedure (OR = 0.99, 95 CI 0.91-1.07; P = 0.74) involving the lumbar, sacral, or thoracic spine. The intervention was also not significantly associated with any individual spine procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Inserting epidemiological text into spine imaging reports had no effect on nonsurgical or surgical procedure utilization among patients receiving lumbar diagnostic imaging.

[Exploratory study on spinal musculoskeletal health of osteopathy students]. / Étude exploratoire de la santé musculo-squelettique du rachis d'étudiants en ostéopathie.

BACKGROUND: During their training, students in osteopathy regularly undergo spinal manipulation exercises. This exposes the students' spine to unskilled gestures performed by their colleagues learning spinal manipulation. Discomfort, muscle soreness or moderate pain following spinal manipulations lasting two or three days are commonly reported. In addition, some students may have ongoing spinal musculoskeletal disease (SMSD) during their studies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of SMSDs and their maximum intensity in a population of osteopathy students and to determine whether individual differences exist. METHOD: An exploratory cross-sectional study took place over three years. Data were collected by means of a self-administrated standardised questionnaire screening for MSD: the Nordic questionnaire. RESULTS: There were 733 exploitable questionnaires, giving an average response rate of 91.5%. Average prevalence of SMSD was 98.4% during the last 12 months. Average maximum intensity perceived was 6/10 and 45% of students experienced an intense SMSD (scored between 7 and 10/10). Variation of the maximum intensity of SMSD between "before osteopathy studies" and "the last 12 months" was 1.2/10. This variation was influenced by the number of days students were manipulated during a week (p<0.0001). On average, students underwent manipulation three days a week. CONCLUSION: This study confirms the important prevalence of SMSD among osteopathy students. This result led us to carry out a qualitative study for exploring students' conceptions in health and spinal manipulative practices.

Characteristics of chiropractors who manage people aged 65 and older: A nationally representative sample of 1903 chiropractors.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence and profile of chiropractors who frequently manage people aged 65 years and older. METHODS: A national cross-sectional survey collected practitioner characteristics, practice settings and clinical management characteristics. Multiple logistic regression was conducted on 1903 chiropractors to determine the factors associated with the frequent treatment of people 65 years and older. RESULTS: In total, 73.5% of participants report "often" treating those aged 65 years and older. These chiropractors were associated with treating degenerative spine conditions (OR [odds ratio] 2.25; 95% [confidence interval] CI 1.72-2.94), working in a non-urban area (OR 1.85; 95% CI 1.35-2.54), treating low back pain (referred/radicular) (OR 1.74; 95% CI 1.26-2.40) and lower limb musculoskeletal disorders (OR 1.50; 95% CI 1.15-1.96). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of chiropractors report often providing treatment to older people. Our findings call for more research to better understand older patient complaints that are common to chiropractic practice and the care provided by chiropractors for this patient group.

The Global Spine Care Initiative: public health and prevention interventions for common spine disorders in low- and middle-income communities.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to develop recommendations for prevention interventions for spinal disorders that could be delivered globally, but especially in underserved areas and in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: We extracted risk factors, associations, and comorbidities of common spinal disorders (e.g., back and neck pain, spinal trauma, infection, developmental disorders) from a scoping review of meta-analyses and systematic reviews of clinical trials, cohort studies, case control studies, and cross-sectional studies. Categories were informed by the Global Spine Care Initiative (GSCI) classification system using the biopsychosocial model. Risk factors were clustered and mapped visually. Potential prevention interventions for individuals and communities were identified. RESULTS: Forty-one risk factors, 51 associations, and 39 comorbidities were extracted; some were associated with more than one disorder. Interventions were at primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary prevention levels. Public health-related actions included screening for osteopenia, avoiding exposure to certain substances associated with spinal disorders, insuring adequate dietary intake for vitamins and minerals, smoking cessation, weight management, injury prevention, adequate physical activity, and avoiding harmful clinical practices (e.g., over-medicalization). CONCLUSION: Prevention principles and health promotion strategies were identified that were incorporated in the GSCI care pathway. Interventions should encourage healthy behaviors of individuals and promote public health interventions that are most likely to optimize physical and psychosocial health targeting the unique characteristics of each community. Prevention interventions that are implemented in medically underserved areas should be based upon best evidence, resource availability, and selected through group decision-making processes by individuals and the community. These slides can be retrieved under Electronic Supplementary Material.

The Relationship Between Spinal Pain and Comorbidity: A Cross-sectional Analysis of 579 Community-Dwelling, Older Australian Women.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of this study were to (1) report the prevalence and explore the influence of spinal pain on quality of life and (2) assess the relationship between spinal pain and the type and number of comorbidities. METHODS: This cross-sectional study comprised 579 community-dwelling, older Australian women. Women had "spinal pain" if they marked "yes" to neck pain, upper back pain, mid-back pain, and/or lower back pain. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were performed to report the prevalence and explore the relationship between spinal pain and the type and number of comorbidities. RESULTS: A majority of women (55.8%) who returned surveys had spinal pain. Women with spinal pain had significantly lower physical and mental quality of life scores than women without spinal pain (Medical Outcomes Study: 36 Item Short Form Survey [SF-36] physical component summary: 40.1 ± 11.1 vs 49.0 ± 9.0, and SF-36 mental component summary: 50.0 ± 10.5 vs 53.9 ± 8.2, respectively). Having spinal pain was significantly associated with overweight and obesity (odds ratio 1.98 [95% confidence interval 1.3-2.96] and 2.12 [1.37-3.28]), diabetes (1.93 [1.01-3.67]), pulmonary comorbidity (1.66 [1.04-2.65]), and cardiovascular comorbidity (1.57 [1.07-2.28]). More than half of the women with spinal pain reported 2 or more comorbidities, with comorbidities significantly more common among women with spinal pain than among women without spinal pain. The odds of having spinal pain increased with an increasing number of comorbidities (2 comorbidities: 2.44 [1.47-4.04], 3 comorbidities: 3.07 [1.66-5.67], 4 comorbidities: 5.05 [1.64-15.54]). CONCLUSIONS: Spinal pain is common in community-dwelling, older Australian women and is associated with greater disability and poorer quality of life. Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, and obesity appear to have a relationship with spinal pain. There was an incremental increase in the risk of spinal pain associated with increasing comorbidity count.

Association between cervical and thoracic somatic dysfunction among second-year osteopathic medical students.

CONTEXT: The ubiquitous nature of cervical and thoracic somatic dysfunction requires osteopathic physicians to have a strong working knowledge of regional spinal mechanics and their functional and dysfunctional interrelationships. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether cervical and thoracic somatic dysfunction occur concomitantly, particularly somatic dysfunction of the occipitoatlantal (OA) and upper thoracic (T1-T4) region of the spine. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of cervical and thoracic somatic dysfunction prevalence diagnosed by faculty in second-year osteopathic medical students was conducted. Somatic dysfunction was defined as a vertebral unit possessing any of the following palpatory characteristics: tissue texture changes, asymmetry of motion and relative position, restriction of motion, or tenderness (ie, TART criteria). For each instance of somatic dysfunction diagnosed, the segmental level identifying the superior segment of the involved vertebral unit was recorded, as well as the spinal region (ie, cervical [OA, atlantoaxial (AA), and C2-C7] or thoracic [T1-T12]). Descriptive analyses, a Pearson χ(2) test, and a regression model using an analysis of variance were performed on the data. RESULTS: Among 338 students included in the study, the following 5 vertebral segments were found to have the highest prevalence of somatic dysfunction: OA (257 [76.0%]), C3 (257 [76.0%]), T3 (247 [73.1%]), T5 (226 [66.9%]), and T4 (223 [66.0%]). A Pearson χ(2) test of association between the OA vertebral segment and the following segments were found to be statistically significant: AA (P=.024), C2 (P=.032), and T4 (P=.045). An analysis of variance revealed statistical significance between the prevalence of upper cervical (OA, AA, C2) somatic dysfunction and the prevalence of upper thoracic (P<.001) and midthoracic (T5-T8) (P<.001) somatic dysfunction; the prevalence of lower cervical (C3-C7) (P=.74) and lower thoracic (T9-T12) (P=.085) somatic dysfunction was not found to be significant. CONCLUSION: A statistically significant association between cervical somatic dysfunction and thoracic somatic dysfunction was confirmed. In addition, there was a statistically significant association between dysfunction of the OA and the AA, C2, and T4 vertebral segments. These results suggest that the number of dysfunctional vertebral segments in the upper thoracic and midthoracic spinal regions is directly proportional to the number of dysfunctional segments found in the upper cervical spinal region.

Preoperative vitamin D status of adults undergoing surgical spinal fusion.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective investigation of cross-sectional data. OBJECTIVE: To define the prevalence and determinants of preoperative vitamin D deficiency among adults undergoing spinal fusion. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Vitamin D plays a critical role in establishing optimal bone health, which, in turn, is vital to the success of spinal arthrodesis. Recently, hypovitaminosis D was documented in 43% of adults undergoing any orthopedic surgery. METHODS: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels were routinely measured in adults undergoing spinal fusion at a single institution. Between January 2010 and March 2011, 313 patients were retrospectively identified for inclusion. Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency (<20 ng/mL) were analyzed using univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression. RESULTS: The rates of inadequacy (<30 ng/mL) and deficiency were 57% and 27%, respectively. Although 260 patients were diagnosed with degenerative disease (spondylosis), 99 had deformity, and there were 73 revision cases. There was a higher rate of smoking (P = 0.03) and lower age (P < 0.01) in the vitamin D-deficient subset. There was no sex difference. Increasing body mass index (P < 0.01), increasing Neck and Oswestry Disability Index scores (P = 0.03), and lack of vitamin D and/or multivitamin supplementation (P < 0.01) remained predictors of deficiency after multivariate analysis. Those with previous supplementation were older (P < 0.01) and more likely to be at least 50 years old than those without repletion (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Our investigation revealed a substantially high prevalence of vitamin D abnormality in the analyzed population. Although advanced age is a well-established risk factor for hypovitaminosis, young adults undergoing fusion should not be overlooked with regard to vitamin D screening; this age bracket is less likely to have been previously supplemented. In the absence of better-recognized determinants, spinal disability indices may also be useful in identifying those with deficiency.

The spine in ß-thalassemia syndromes.

STUDY DESIGN: Literature review. OBJECTIVE: To present a comprehensive overview of spinal involvement in patients with ß-thalassemia, aiming to orient the spinal surgeon to these potentially disabling complications. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: ß-thalassemia, an inherited disorder of hemoglobin synthesis, is the most common monogenetic disease worldwide. Patients with thalassemia major (TM) suffer a severe anemia that requires regular blood transfusions for survival and iron chelation therapy to control transfusional iron overload. Thalassemia intermedia is a phenotype of thalassemia with a milder course and anemia, wherein most patients remain transfusion independent. Spinal involvement related to disease course and treatment is common in patients with thalassemia syndromes, yet it has not been constructively reviewed in the literature. METHODS: Potentially relevant studies were identified from an electronic search of MEDLINE (1966 to the second week of May 2010). RESULTS: In patients with TM, genetic and acquired risk factors lead to osteoporosis, pathologic fractures of the spine, and back pain. Osteoporosis in TM patients is progressive; thus, early diagnosis and treatment are recommended. Bisphosphonates are relatively safe and effective in this patient population. Characteristic intervertebral disc degeneration is also seen in patients with TM who have evidence of severe iron overload or those who receive the subcutaneous iron chelator deferoxamine. Spinal asymmetry and overt scoliosis are common in patients with TM. The prognosis seems favorable, with many patients showing spontaneous resolution without the need for intervention. In patients with thalassemia intermedia, ineffective erythropoiesis drives extramedullary hematopoietic tissue formation, which is mostly evident on magnetic resonance imaging. Paraspinal involvement is of greatest concern because of the associated spinal cord compression. Several treatment options have been described, including transfusion therapy, laminectomy, radiotherapy, and the use of fetal hemoglobin-inducing agents that decrease the hematopoietic drive. CONCLUSION: Current knowledge supports that spinal involvement in patients with ß-thalassemia is common and diverse yet still requires further prospective evaluation.

Perfil dos desvios posturais da coluna vertebral em adolescentes de escolas públicas do município de Juazeiro do Norte - CE / Profile of postural deviations of the spine in adolescents from public schools in the city of Juazeiro do Norte - CE

Postura é definida como sendo a posição adotada pelo ser humano. Dados epidemiológicos apontam para uma alta prevalência de alterações posturais de coluna entre crianças e adolescentes. O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar os desvios posturais da coluna vertebral em escolares (n=670) de 11 a 19 anos. Utilizou-se como metodologia um simetrógrafo e uma máquina fotográfica para pesquisar a presença de desvios na coluna vertebral. Foram utilizados um nível d'água e uma régua para aferir a gibosidade, um fio de prumo e uma régua para medir os desvios laterais da coluna. Dos resultados obtidos, encontrou-se uma prevalência de 8,8% de desvios laterais e 2,4% de gibosidade, além de ser observada a presença de escoliose em portadores de assimetrias de ombros e ilíacos. Porém, não houve influência do peso, altura e índice de massa corporal (IMC) para a prevalência de escoliose. Dessa maneira, com este estudo, constatou-se elevada prevalência dos desvios posturais em escolares.

Posture is defined as the position taken by humans. Epidemiological data indicate a high prevalence of backbone postural changes among children and adolescents. The aim of this study was to investigate the postural deviations of the spine in schoolchildren (n=670) from 11 to 19 years. The methodology used was a simetrograf and a camera for the presence of deviations in the spine. We used a water level and a ruler to measure the spinal deformity, a plumb line and a ruler to measure the lateral deviation of the spine. Of the obtained results it was found a prevalence of 8.8% of lateral deviation and 2.4% of gibbosity, besides it was observed the presence of scoliosis in patients with asymmetries in the shoulders and hipbones. However, there was no influence of weight, height and body mass index (BMI) for the prevalence of scoliosis. Thus, through this study, it was stated the high prevalence of postural deviations in schoolchildren.

Role of hyperbaric oxygen therapy in the treatment of bacterial spinal osteomyelitis.

OBJECT: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO) is used as primary and/or adjunctive therapy in the treatment of various clinical conditions complicated by local hypoxia. It may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of neurosurgical infections such as spinal osteomyelitis that are associated with significant morbidity rates. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of HBO therapy in the treatment of spinal osteomyelitis. METHODS: The clinical records of patients diagnosed with spinal osteomyelitis who received HBO therapy during their treatment at the authors' institution over the past 10 years were retrospectively reviewed. Six adult patients were identified. Four patients had recently undergone spinal surgery and secondary spinal osteomyelitis had developed. These patients received adjunctive HBO therapy due to significant comorbidities and risk factors for poor healing. RESULTS: All patients remained symptom and infection free over the subsequent follow-up period. Two patients had primary spinal osteomyelitis that had recurred despite a full course of appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Infection control was achieved after HBO therapy in 1 patient. The mean follow-up period for the study group was 2.9 years (range 5 months to 5 years). CONCLUSIONS: Hyperbaric oxygen therapy enabled infection cure in 5 of 6 patients with spinal osteomyelitis complicated by medical comorbidities or the failure of primary therapy. These results show that HBO may be a useful adjunctive therapeutic modality in the treatment of spinal osteomyelitis, particularly when there are medical comorbidities that increase the risk of poor healing. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy may also be beneficial in patients with relapsing primary spinal osteomyelitis after standard therapy has failed.

Current therapeutic strategy in spinal brucellosis.

Brucellosis is a systemic disease and may affect many organ systems. However, musculoskeletal involvement represents 10-85% of the focal complications. Involvement of the spine is one of the most common localized forms of human brucellosis, especially in elderly patients. It is a destructive disease that requires a correct and early diagnosis, and immediate treatment. However, controversy remains over the optimal duration and antimicrobial regimen required for the treatment of spinal brucellosis. Relapses and sequelae are still reported. In recent years, in order to improve outcomes, alternative regimens have been investigated. However, the classical regimen (doxycycline, 100mg twice daily, for at least 12 weeks combined with streptomycin, 1g daily, for the first 2 or 3 weeks) remains the first choice of antibiotic therapy. Alternative therapies (rifampin, fluoroquinolones, co-trimoxazole) should be considered when adverse reactions or contraindications to the above drugs (ototoxicity, nephrotoxicity, pregnancy, etc.) are reported.

Prevalence of modic degenerative marrow changes in the cervical spine.

OBJECTIVE: The prevalence and distribution of Modic degenerative marrow changes as seen on magnetic resonance imaging scans have been reported for the lumbar spine, and research suggests that type 1 Modic changes are linked to low back pain. The purpose of this study was to report on the prevalence, types, and distribution of the changes found for the cervical spine. METHODS: One hundred thirty-three cervical spine T1-weighted and T2-weighted sagittal magnetic resonance imaging scans were viewed retrospectively by two radiologists. Data were recorded for patient age, patient sex, and the presence or absence of Modic changes. If Modic changes were present, then the precise vertebral levels of these changes and the specific Modic type were recorded. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the prevalence of Modic changes overall, the prevalence of types 1, 2, and 3 changes, and the prevalence in male vs female patients. The frequency of these changes by spinal level was also determined. RESULTS: One hundred eighteen patients met the inclusion criteria. Modic changes were seen in 19 patients (16%), with 4 showing changes in more than one segmental level. The most common Modic change observed was type 1. Type 3 marrow changes were the second most common category to be noted. Only 3 patients had Modic type 2 marrow changes. The most common cervical spinal level to show Modic changes was C5-6. CONCLUSIONS: Modic degenerative bone marrow changes are observed in the cervical spine, with the C5-6 level being the most commonly involved. Unlike in the lumbar spine in which Modic type 2 changes predominate, type 1 marrow changes were far more common in the cervical spine. Further studies should focus on the clinical relevance of these findings.

Cervicogenic headache: practical approaches to therapy.

Cervicogenic headache is a relatively common and still controversial form of headache arising from structures in the neck. The estimated prevalence of the disorder varies considerably, ranging from 0.7% to 13.8%. Cervicogenic headache is a 'side-locked' or unilateral fixed headache characterised by a non-throbbing pain that starts in the neck and spreads to the ipsilateral oculo-fronto-temporal area. In patients with this disorder, attacks or chronic fluctuating periods of neck/head pain may be provoked/worsened by sustained neck movements or stimulation of ipsilateral tender points. The pathophysiology of cervicogenic headache probably depends on the effects of various local pain-producing or eliciting factors, such as intervertebral dysfunction, cytokines and nitric oxide. Frequent coexistence of a history of head traumas suggests these also play an important role. A reliable diagnosis of cervicogenic headache can be made based on the criteria established in 1998 by the Cervicogenic Headache International Study Group. Positive response after an appropriate nerve block is an essential diagnostic feature of the disorder. Differential diagnoses of cervicogenic headache include hemicrania continua, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, occipital neuralgia, migraine and tension headache. Various therapies have been used in the management of cervicogenic headache. These range from lowly invasive, drug-based therapies to highly invasive, surgical-based therapies. This review evaluates use of drug therapy with paracetamol and NSAIDs, infliximab and botulinum toxin type A; manual modalities and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation therapy; local injection of anaesthetic or corticosteroids; and invasive surgical therapies for the treatment of cervicogenic headache. A curative therapy for cervicogenic headache will not be developed until increased knowledge of the aetiology and pathophysiology of the condition becomes available. In the meantime, limited evidence suggests that therapy with repeated injections of botulinum toxin type A may be the most safe and efficacious approach. The surgical approach, which includes decompression and radiofrequency lesions of the involved nerve structures, may also provide physicians with further options for refractory cervicogenic headache patients. Unfortunately, the paucity of experimental models for cervicogenic headache and the relative lack of biomolecular markers for the condition mean much is still unclear about cervicogenic headache and the disorder remains inadequately treated.

[Neurological paleopathology in the pre-Columbian cultures of the coast and the Andean plateau (I). Artificial cranial deformation]. / Paleopatologia neurologica en las culturas precolombinas de la costa y altiplano andino (I). Deformaciones craneales intencionales.

AIMS: The aim of this work was to study the cranial trepanations and deformations carried out by the ancient Paraca, Huari, Tiahuanaco and Inca cultures. To do so, we conducted a field study involving visits to archaeological remains and anthropological museums on the Andean plateau and the Peruvian coast. DEVELOPMENT: Cranial deformation was more common in the Andean regions and was performed by putting little pieces of wood or compressive bandages on newborn infants' heads in order to modify the growth axis of the cranial cavity. Cranial deformations were performed for aesthetic and magic religious reasons, but were also used as a means of ethnic or social identification, as a symbol of nobility or to distinguish the ruling classes. The immediate consequence of such deformation was the modification of the normal process by which the cranial sutures close. There is a significant correlation between the presence of posterior and lateral wormian bones, according to the degree of artificial deformation. The persistence of metopic suture and exostosis of the outer ear canal have been found in 5% of the skulls belonging to pre Columbine mummies. Other paleopathological findings include cranial fractures (7%), porotic hyperostosis (25% of children's skulls), spina bifida occulta, signs of spinal disk arthrosis and Pott's disease. CONCLUSIONS: Artificial cranial deformation was a very widespread practice in the Andean regions in pre Columbine times.

Reliability and validity of lumbosacral spine radiograph reading by chiropractors, chiropractic radiologists, and medical radiologists.

STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional diagnostic study was conducted in two sessions. OBJECTIVE: To determine and compare the reliability and validity of contraindications to chiropractic treatment (infections, malignancies, inflammatory spondylitis, and spondylolysis-listhesis) detected by chiropractors, chiropractic radiologists, and medical radiologists on plain lumbosacral radiographs. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Plain radiography of the spine is an established part of chiropractic practice. Few studies have assessed the ability of chiropractors to read plain radiographs. METHODS: Five chiropractors, three chiropractic radiologists and five medical radiologists read a set of 300 blinded lumbosacral radiographs, 50 of which showed an abnormality (prevalence, 16.7%), in two sessions. The results were expressed in terms of reliability (percentage and kappa) and validity (sensitivity and specificity). RESULTS: The interobserver agreement in the first session showed generalized kappas of 0.44 for the chiropractors, 0.55 for the chiropractic radiologists, and 0.60 for the medical radiologists. The intraobserver agreement showed mean kappas of 0.58, 0.68, and 0.72, respectively. The difference between the chiropractic radiologists and medical radiologists was not significant. However, there was a difference between the chiropractors and the other professional groups. The mean sensitivity and specificity of the first round, respectively was 0.86 and 0.88 for the chiropractors, 0.90 and 0.84 for the chiropractic radiologists, and 0.84 and 0.92 for the medical radiologists. No differences in the sensitivities were found between the professional groups. The medical radiologists were more specific than the others. CONCLUSIONS: Small differences with little clinical relevance were found. All the professional groups could adequately detect contraindications to chiropractic treatment on radiographs. For this indication, there is no reason to restrict interpretation of radiographs to medical radiologists. Good professional relationships between the professions are recommended to facilitate interprofessional consultation in case of doubt by the chiropractors.

[Intervertebral disk disease among oil drilling workers]. / Doença do disco intervertebral em trabalhadores da perfuração de petróleo.

A cross-sectional study among 1,026 oil drilling workers in Northeast Brazil found a prevalence rate of 5% for intervertebral disk disease, varying from 1.8% (activities without heavy lifting) and 4.5% (occasional lifting) to 7.2% (routine lifting). Disease prevalence was 10.5% among drilling workers with more than 15 years in the industry and 11.3% among those over 40 years of age. Prevalence ratio (PR) for the association between working in oil drilling operations and intervertebral disk disease was 2.3 (95% CI: 1.3-4.0). Retrospective information about exposure was collected to minimize the healthy worker survival effect. Using information on current occupation instead of occupational life history would cause an underestimated PR of 1.1 (95% CI: 0.6-1.9). Logistic regression showed results similar to the tabular analysis. Neither confounding nor interaction was evident. Growth of the Brazilian oil industry and recent changes in the work force contract and management, involving changes in risk management and health control, indicate a need for prompt ergonomic intervention in order to control intervertebral disk disease among oil drilling workers.

Reliability of lumbar spine radiograph reading by chiropractors.

STUDY DESIGN: An intraobserver and interobserver study on the reproducibility of data was performed. OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the variability in the interpretation of lumbar spine radiographs by chiropractors working in private practice. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: In chiropractic practice radiographs are used often, but this use is currently under debate. Therefore, there is a need for further study of the value of diagnoses made by radiographs by chiropractors. An acceptable intra- and interobserver agreement in radiograph reading is a prerequisite for a useful application of radiographs as a diagnostic tool in daily practice and in research. METHODS: Four chiropractors read 100 blinded sets of standard, erect anteroposterior and lateral lumbar radiographs independently. The same set was read in two separate sessions with a 2-month interval. The first session revealed the interobserver agreement. The comparison of the ratings by the same assessor in the two sessions indicated the intraobserver agreement. The assessors used a specially developed criteria list with emphasis on "nonspecific" radiographic findings. The prevalence of some important categories was increased artificially. Agreement was expressed in percentage agreement and generalized kappa, combining the results of all four assessors. RESULTS: Most kappas ranged from 0.40 to 0.75, representing fair to good agreement. In general, intraobserver agreement was better than interobserver agreement. The low kappas that were found may be explained partially by the high-agreement-low-kappa paradox as a result of a low prevalence. CONCLUSION: The kappas and percentage agreement were acceptable, although not excellent. These results will be beneficial for future research on the value of radiograph diagnosis of nonspecific findings for delivery of safe and effective chiropractic therapy.